Résumé
Active social influence (e.g., cheering) aims to support athletes by mobilising resources, such as motivation and self-efficacy. Current evidence indicates its performance-enhancing effects. In experimental studies, researchers examined how its application (e.g., with or without cheering) and/or characteristics (e.g., frequency, content) influence sport performance. Unfortunately, these studies often lack external validity because the experimental stimulus features standardised phrases, which are given at regular intervals by experimenters unknown to the participants. This may limit the transferability of the evidence to sport settings. To date, there is a lack of research documenting how verbal encouragement (VE) and nonverbal encouragement (NVE) occur naturally. The present observational study analyses VE and NVE quantitatively and qualitatively to identify whether both VE and NVE become more frequent as the task becomes more demanding.
We video-recorded N=39 Canadian hockey student-athletes (49% female, Mage=20.97, SDage=1.91) during their pre-season endurance assessment. The participants worked in pairs: while one was running, the other student-athlete was encouraging them. The VE and NVE per second were coded, transcribed and analysed using deductive-inductive thematic analysis. As expected, VE and NVE increased over time, indicating an increase in a resource to cope with the demands of the task. The coding framework classified most statements as informational, appraisal or tangible support. The present evidence may inform future experimental research aiming to use more externally valid encouragement stimuli. Moreover, interpersonal differences in encouragement behaviour between male and female athletes are discussed.
